Samsara, Nirvana, and Buddha Nature Page 2
The book begins with an examination of the self: Is there a self? Does it have a beginning and an end? This leads into a discussion of the four truths — duḥkha (unsatisfactory circumstances), its origin, its cessation, and the path to that cessation — in both its coarse and subtle forms. We then delve into each truth, examining its four attributes, which reveals misunderstandings we may have about them and how to remedy those misconceptions.
With a clearer understanding of the four truths, in chapter 2 we look closely at true duḥkha — the realms of saṃsāric existence and our experiences in them. This exposes the many repugnant faults of saṃsāra and gives us a lens through which to see our present situation as it is. Chapter 3 identifies the chief causes of duḥkha — the six root afflictions. Investigating more closely, we find many other defilements obscuring our mindstreams. These bring psychological disturbances and have physical ramifications. This chapter provides a mirror for us to identify disturbing emotions and afflictive views that may otherwise go unnoticed.
In chapters 4 and 5 we examine the origins of duḥkha more thoroughly: the factors causing the arising of afflictions, feelings accompanying various afflictions, and temporary antidotes to subdue afflictions. We also learn about seeds of afflictions that provide continuity between one instance of an affliction and the next, latencies of afflictions that obscure the mind even after the afflictions have been eradicated, and karmic seeds and having-ceaseds that connect an action with its result. Chapter 6 deals with the way karma affects the evolution of the universe and our bodies.
The twelve links of dependent origination — which describe how rebirth in saṃsāra occurs and how the chain of events leading to it can be cut — is an important teaching in both the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions. With it comes the question, “Who revolves in cyclic existence and who is liberated?” which leads us to investigate the nature of the person. Chapters 7 and 8 explore the afflictive side of dependent origination and encourage us to renounce duḥkha and aspire for liberation, as explained in chapter 9. Chapters 10 and 11 describe the purified side of dependent origination, focusing especially on nirvāṇa, the ultimate true cessation. True path will be explained extensively in volume 4.
In order to aspire to liberation, we must know that liberation is possible. Elaborated on in chapter 12, this depends on understanding both the conventional and ultimate natures of our minds. If defilements were embedded in the nature of the mind, liberation would be impossible. Similarly, if the mind existed inherently, it could never change, and trying to attain liberation and awakening would be fruitless. But thankfully none of these is the case. Since ignorance is a faulty mind, it can be removed by correct wisdom.
Chapters 13 and 14 come from some of the most vibrant interviews with His Holiness, where he traced the explanation of true cessation from the first turning of the Dharma wheel to its more elaborate form in the second turning. He also traced the explanation of true path — the mind that realizes emptiness — from the Sūtra to the Tantra perspective, as hinted at in the third turning of the Dharma wheel. Listening to this was confusing and enlightening at the same time; there is a lot of profound meaning in these chapters that opens the way to gaining conviction that awakening is indeed possible.
Please Note
Although this series is coauthored, the vast majority of the material is His Holiness’s instruction. I researched and wrote the parts pertaining to the Pāli tradition, wrote some other passages, and composed the reflections. For ease of reading, most honorifics have been omitted, but that does not diminish the great respect we have for these most excellent sages and practitioners. Foreign terms are given in parentheses at their first usage. Unless otherwise noted with “P” or “T,” indicating Pāli or Tibetan, respectively, italicized terms are Sanskrit. When two italicized terms are listed, the first is Sanskrit, the second Pāli. For consistency, Sanskrit spelling is used for Sanskrit and Pāli terms used in common language (nirvāṇa, Dharma, arhat, and so forth), except in citations from Pāli scriptures. Śrāvaka encompasses solitary realizers, unless there is reason to specifically speak of them. To maintain the flow of a passage, it is not always possible to gloss all new terms on their first use; a glossary is provided for you at the end of the book. “Sūtra” often refers to Sūtrayāna and “Tantra” to Tantrayāna. When these two words are not capitalized, they refer to two types of discourses: sūtras and tantras. Unless otherwise noted, the personal pronoun “I” refers to His Holiness.
Appreciation
I bow to Śākyamuni Buddha and all the buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats who embody the Dharma and with compassion teach it to us unawakened beings. I also bow to all the realized lineage masters of all Buddhist traditions through whose kindness the Dharma still exists in our world.
Since this series will appear in consecutive volumes, I will express my appreciation of those involved in each particular volume. This volume, the third in The Library of Wisdom and Compassion, is due to the talents and efforts of His Holiness’s translators — Geshe Lhakdor, Geshe Dorji Damdul, and Mr. Tenzin Tsepak. I am grateful to Geshe Dorji Damdul, Geshe Dadul Namgyal, and Ven. Sangye Khadro for checking the manuscript, and to Samdhong Rinpoche, Geshe Sonam Rinchen, and Geshe Thubten Palsang for clarifying important points. I also thank Bhikkhu Bodhi for his clear teachings on the Pāli tradition and for generously answering my many questions. The staff at the Private Office of His Holiness facilitated the interviews, and Sravasti Abbey and Dharma Friendship Foundation kindly supported me while I worked on this series. Mary Petrusewicz skillfully edited this book, and Traci Thrasher was a tremendous help in gathering the photographs. I thank everyone at Wisdom Publications who contributed to the successful production of this series. All errors are my own.
Bhikṣuṇī Thubten Chodron
Sravasti Abbey
Abbreviations
Translations used in this volume, unless noted otherwise, are as cited here. Some terminology has been modified for consistency with the present work.
ADK
Treasury of Knowledge (Abhidharmakośa) by Vasubandhu.
ADS
Compendium of Knowledge (Abhidharmasamuccaya).
AN
Aṅguttara Nikāya. Translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi in The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012).
BCA
Engaging in the Bodhisattvas’ Deeds (Bodhicaryāvatāra) by Śāntideva.
CMA
Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha by Anuruddha. In A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi (Seattle: BPS Pariyatti Editions, 2000).
CŚ
The Four Hundred (Catuḥśataka) by Āryadeva. Translated by Ruth Sonam in Āryadeva’s Four Hundred Stanzas on the Middle Way (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2008).
DN
Dīgha Nikāya. Translated by Maurice Walshe in The Long Discourses of the Buddha (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995).
DS
Praise to the Sphere of Reality (Dharmadhātu-stava) by Nāgārjuna.
EPL
Elucidating the Path to Liberation: A Study of the Commentary on the Abhidharmakosa by the First Dalai Lama. Translated by David Patt (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1993).
LC
The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path (T. Lam rim chen mo) by Tsongkhapa, 3 vols. Translated by Joshua Cutler et al. (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2000–2004).
LS
Praise to the Supramundane (Lokātītastava) by Nāgārjuna.
MMK
Treatise on the Middle Way (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā) by Nāgārjuna.
MN
Majjhima Nikāya. Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi in The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2005).
OR
Ocean of Reasoning by rJe Tsong Khapa. Translated by Geshe Ngawang Samten and Jay L. Garfield (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
P
Pāli.
Commentary on the “Compendium of Reliable Cognition” (Pramāṇavārttika) by Dharmakīrti. Hereafter Commentary on Reliable Cognition.
RA
Precious Garland (Ratnāvalī) by Nāgārjuna. Translated by John Dunne and Sara McClintock in The Precious Garland: An Epistle to a King (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1997).
RGV
Sublime Continuum (Ratnagotravibhāga, Uttaratantra) by Maitreya.
SN
Saṃyutta Nikāya. Translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi in The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000).
T
Tibetan.
Vism
Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) by Buddhaghoṣa. Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli in The Path of Purification (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1991).
Introduction
How to Study the Teachings
AS WITH ALL activities, our attitude and motivation for learning and practicing the Buddhadharma affect the value of our action. Keeping six factors in mind will enable you to have a beneficial motivation. First, see yourself as a sick person who wants to recover. Our illness is cyclic existence and the duḥkha — unsatisfactory circumstances — that permeate it. Duḥkha includes being subject to birth, aging, sickness, and death under the influence of afflictions and karma, as well as not getting what we want, being separated from what we love, and encountering problems we don’t want. Seeing ourselves as ill, we will approach the teachings with sincerity and receptivity.
Second, regard the teacher as a kind doctor who correctly diagnoses our illness and prescribes the medicine to cure it. Our saṃsāra is rooted in mental afflictions, the chief of which is ignorance that misapprehends the ultimate nature of phenomena. Although we want happiness, our minds are continually overwhelmed by attachment, anger, and confusion that cause us misery here and now and create the karma for future duḥkha.
Third, see teachings as medicine to cure our illness. The Buddha prescribes the medicine of the three higher trainings in ethical conduct, concentration, and wisdom, and the medicine of bodhicitta and the six perfections — generosity, ethical conduct, fortitude, joyous effort, meditative stability, and wisdom. Fourth, understand that practicing the teachings is the method to heal.
When we are ill, we naturally respect the doctor, trust the medicine, and want to take it, even if it doesn’t taste so good. If we second-guess the doctor or complain about the medicine, we won’t take it. Similarly, if we don’t respect the Buddha and the Dharma, we won’t practice. Likewise, if we have a prescription but don’t fill it, or fill it but don’t take the medicine, we won’t recover. We must make an effort to learn and practice the Dharma and not simply collect statues, texts, and prayer beads. Curing the illness is a collaborative process between doctor and patient; we must both do our parts. The King of Concentration Sūtra says (LC 1:60–61):
Some people are ill, their bodies tormented;
for many years there is not even temporary relief.
Afflicted with illness for a very long time,
they seek a doctor, in search of a cure.
Searching again and again,
they at last find a physician with skill and knowledge.
Treating the patients with compassion,
the doctor gives medicine, saying, “Here, take this.”
This medicine is plentiful, good, and valuable.
It will cure the illness, but the patients do not take it.
This is not a shortcoming of the doctor, nor the fault of the medicine.
It is just the negligence of those who are ill.
I have explained this very good teaching.
Yet if you, having heard it, do not practice correctly,
then just like a sick person holding a bag of medicine,
your illness cannot be cured.
Taking the medicine entails looking beyond the words we hear and trying to understand their deeper meaning. When that is clear in our minds, we must then consistently put it into practice. Then, and only then, will our disease of duḥkha and afflictions be cured. When taking ordinary medicine, we must follow the instructions properly and take the whole cycle. If we take the medicine for a few days and then stop, we won’t get well. Similarly, if we don’t like the taste of the medicine and so mix in all sorts of better-tasting things, we won’t recover. Our commitment to practicing the teachings as we are able to is a crucial element in our awakening.
Fifth, regard the buddhas as excellent, wise, and compassionate beings, and sixth, pray that the teachings will exist for a very long time so that many sentient beings can benefit from them.
Then cultivate an altruistic motivation, thinking, “I want to be free from the duḥkha of saṃsāra and will seek the Buddha’s medicine that, when practiced properly, will lead me to good health. But I am not the only sick person; countless sentient beings also wander in saṃsāra and suffer from the afflictions. May I become a skillful and compassionate doctor like the Buddha, so that I can help all other sentient beings to be free from the duḥkha of saṃsāra.”
1
The Self, the Four Truths, and Their Sixteen Attributes
THE FOUR TRUTHS of the āryas are four facts that āryas — beings who directly see the ultimate nature of all persons and phenomena — know as true. These four truths establish the fundamental framework of the Buddhadharma, so a good understanding of them is essential. In this chapter we will look at the four truths in general, and in subsequent chapters will examine each one in detail.
The four truths describe the unawakened and awakened experiences of this merely designated self, so to begin with I would like to share some reflections on the self — the person who is reborn in cyclic existence, practices the path, and attains awakening.
Three Questions about the Self
I enjoy interfaith gatherings and appreciate the genuine in-depth dialogue and cooperation that result from them. At one such gathering in Amritsar, India, each participant was asked three questions: Is there a self? Is there a beginning to the self? Is there an end to the self? Here are my thoughts.
Is There a Self?
Most non-Buddhists assert an independent self — an ātman or soul — that takes rebirth. What leads them to say this? Although we know that our adult bodies did not exist at the time of our births, when we say, “At the time I was born . . .” we feel there was a self that was born and that this same self exists today. We also say, “Today my mind is calm,” indicating that our mind is different today than yesterday when it was disturbed. But we feel the I is the same as yesterday. When we see a flower, we think, “I see,” and it feels that there is a real person who sees it.
In all these cases, although we know that the body and mind change, we still have the sense of an enduring I that is the owner of the body and mind. This is the basis for believing there is a permanent, unitary, independent self that goes to heaven or hell or is reborn in another body after death. From this comes the conclusion that there must be an unchanging, independent I that is present throughout our lives and remains the same although the mental and physical aggregates change. This I is the agent of all actions such as walking and thinking.
While both Buddhists and non-Buddhists accept the existence of the self, our ideas of what the self is differ radically: most non-Buddhists accept the existence of a permanent, unchanging soul or independent self, while Buddhists refute it. Although no Buddhist philosophical school asserts a permanent, unitary, independent self, these schools have various ideas of what the self is: the mental consciousness, the continuum of consciousness, the collection of aggregates, or the mere I that is merely designated. The Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka, which is generally accepted as the most refined system of tenets, says the self is merely designated in dependence on the body and mind. Because the self is merely imputed, we can say, “I am young or old” and “I think and feel.” If the person were a completely different entity from the body and mind, it would not change when e
ither the body or mind changes.
Is There a Beginning to the Self?
Those who believe in an external creator assert an autonomous intelligence that does not depend on causes and conditions. This being, they say, created the world and the sentient beings in it. For many people the notion that God created life fosters the feeling of being close to God and willingness to follow God’s advice to be kind and refrain from harming others. Their belief in a creator spurs them to live ethically and to help others.
Some faiths such as Jainism and Sāṃkhya do not assert a creator, but I do not know if they believe the ātman has a beginning.
A repeated theme in Buddhism is dependent arising, one aspect of which is that functioning things arise due to causes and conditions. When explaining the twelve links of dependent origination, the Buddha said, “Because of this, that exists. Because this has arisen, that arises.” Because of this, that exists points out that things come into existence due to causes and conditions; they do not appear without a cause. If something has no causes, what makes it arise? If things do not depend on causes and conditions, why does a seed grow into a plant in the spring but not in the winter? If our lunch came into being without a cause, it would arise without groceries, pots, or cooks! Therefore everything — the body, the mind, and the external universe — depends on causes and conditions.